Not only is cancer the secondleading cause of death in the United States (after heart disease), itsinsidious nature gives it a special terror. Most diseases give warning in theform of escalating symptoms, while others strike so suddenly that there’s notime to brood on it. Cancer follows a different, stealthier path. A person whofeels perfectly well may come back from the doctor’s office with a diagnosis ofpotentially fatal cancer and plenty of time to fear what comes next.

Conventional treatments for cancer also have frightening qualities tothem: disfiguring surgery, arduous chemotherapy, and treatment with invisibleradiation. In many cases, when cancer is found early enough, conventionaltreatment can lead to a permanent cure. But often the prognosis is given instatistics—a percentage chance of survival—or, worse, in months remaining tolive.

No wonder, then, that people turn to alternative medicine.It would be wonderful if there were some powerful alternative approach thatcould rout cancer at its root. Unfortunately, the reality is that noalternative treatment offers a sure and simple route to recovery. Worse still,there are plenty of unscrupulous people who will take advantage of a cancervictim’s desperation. Even the most scrupulous providers of alternative cancertherapy mislead in one sense: they display a conviction and enthusiasm eventhough they do not know, in truth, whether their approach really works. Itsimply isn’t possible for a medical practitioner to fairly judge theeffectiveness of a therapy from apparent clinical results. Only double-blind, placebo-controlled studies can do that. (For information on why this form of study is essential, see Why Does This Database Rely on Double-blind Studies? )

It is possible, of course, that some alternativetherapies for cancer may truly work, even if they haven’t yet been proven.However, we may never know which ones are real and which ones offer only falsepromises. Proper studies require money and patience with the scientificprocess, and proponents of alternative cancer therapies may lack one or both ofthose. In addition, ethical considerations make it difficult to study anunproven therapy for a fatal disease, when therapies that provide a chance ofcure are available. For this reason, most studies of alternative therapies forcancer have involved adding a natural treatment to a standard cancer regimen;alternatively, they enrolled individuals who have already failed to respond toexisting methods. These latter circumstances could potentially hide thebenefits of an effective natural therapy. If a treatment only worked in theabsence of chemotherapy, for example (as some alternative cancer therapyproponents claim about their methods) or could only cure early cases ofcancer, these ethical obstacles would prevent researchers from findingout.

This article discusses the relatively small amount ofinformation that is known from a scientific perspective about alternativetreatments for cancer. We also discuss natural options that may reduce sideeffects of standard cancer therapies, as well as possible interactions betweenherbs and supplements and drugs.


Proposed Natural Treatments for Cancer

Various natural supplements have shown some promise for improving theeffectiveness of conventional cancer therapy (specifically, surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation ) or reducing its side effects. In most cases, however, thesupporting evidence remains weak, and the most rigorous studies have oftenfailed to find benefit.

Note: If you are receivingcancer treatment, do not use any herbs or supplements except under thesupervision of your physician.

For information on treatments to prevent cancer, see the CancerPrevention article.


Improving Effectiveness of Conventional CancerTreatment

Numerous natural therapies have been proposedfor enhancing the cancer-fighting effects of standard therapies. However, as noted above, mostof the supporting research falls short of the necessary standard for proof: a double-blind,placebo-controlled study .

Shark Cartilage

Based on the belief thatsharks don't get cancer, shark cartilage has been heavily marketed as a curefor cancer. While this is a myth (sharks do get cancer), shark cartilage has,in fact, shown some promise. Shark cartilage tends to inhibit the growth of newblood vessels, a process called angiogenesis. Since cancerous tumors must buildnew blood vessels to feed themselves, this effect might be beneficial.

Shark cartilage also inhibits substances called matrix metalloproteases(MMPs). 1 These little understood enzymes affectthe extracellular matrix, the framework of substances that lie between cellsin the body. MMPs are thought to play a role in diseases of the cornea, gums,skin, blood vessels, and joints, as well as in cancer and illnesses that involveexcessive fibrous tissue.

A number of test tube experiments havefound that shark cartilage extracts prevent new blood vessels from forming inchick embryos and other test systems. 2-7 Thesefindings have led to other test tube experiments, animal studies, andpreliminary human trials to investigate the possible anticancer effects ofshark cartilage. The results appeared to suggest that a particular liquid shark cartilageextract might be useful in the treatment of various cancers, including lung,prostate, and breast cancer. 8-15 However, the two most recent and best designed of these studies have failed to find benefit. 124,148

SocialSupport and Other Psychological Factors

Cancer treatment puts tremendous stress, bothphysical and emotional, on those that undergo it. Several studies have examinedthe potential benefits of social support for women with breast cancer.According to most, but not all, studies, such support improvessurvival and/or enhances quality of life. 16-18,104 In one famous study of womenwith advanced breast cancer, participants who attended a support group twiceweekly doubled their survival time as compared to study participants who didnot attend the group. 18

It is also commonly said that certain psychological coping styles (for example, fighting spirit versus helpless acceptance) can lead to longer life in people with cancer. However, a review of the evidence found that in fact there is little to no evidence that psychological attitude makes much of a difference. 105 People with cancer should not feel pressured into adopting particular coping styles to improve survival or reduce the risk of recurrence, the study's authors concluded.

One study evaluated guided imagery and relaxation therapy following surgery for colon cancer. 125 The results indicated no more than a short-term, mood-elevating benefit; those receiving the treatment did not recover more quickly.

Vitamin C

Cancer treatmentis one of the more controversial proposed uses of vitamin C . An early studytested vitamin C in 1,100 terminally ill cancer patients. One hundred patientsreceived 10,000 mg daily of vitamin C, while the other 1,000 patients (the controlgroup) did not receive vitamin C. Those taking the vitamin C survived more than4 times longer on average (210 days) than those in the control group (50days). 19 A large (1,826 subjects) follow-upstudy by the same researchers found a nearly doubled survival rate (343 daysversus 180 days) in vitamin C-treated patients whose cancers were deemed"incurable," as compared to people not treated with vitamin C. 20 Benefits were also seen in a similarly designedJapanese study. 21

However, whilethese results seem promising—almost miraculous—they, in fact, show next tonothing because they lacked a placebo group. When proper double-blind, placebo-controlled studies wereperformed on vitamin C for cancer, they failed to find any benefit. 22,23

Vitamin C proponents have criticizedthese trials on various grounds, but the fact remains that there is as yet no reliablepositive evidence for vitamin C in cancer.

PC-SPES for Prostate Cancer

PC-SPES is aformulation of eight natural substances: seven are plants and one is a fungus.The name is derived from the common abbreviation for prostate cancer (PC) andthe Latin word spes , meaning "hope."

After itscommercial launch in 1996, PC-SPES received increasing interest from thegeneral public and prostate cancer researchers. Preliminary evidence suggestedthat it has significant effects on prostate cancer cells, perhaps due in partto its estrogen-like action.

However, chemical analysis reportedin 2002 showed that PC-SPES is not truly a purely herbal product; samples ofthe product dating back to 1996 have been found to contain a form ofpharmaceutical estrogen, diethylstilbestrol (DES), as well as indomethacin (ananti-inflammatory medication in the ibuprofen family), and warfarin (a strongblood thinner). 51 Samples subsequent to 1999contain less DES; but they also have shown less effectiveness in treatingprostate cancer.

There is little doubt that DES is active againstprostate cancer, but it presents a variety of risks, including blood clots inthe legs. The other two pharmaceutical contaminants might actually reduce therisk of blood clots (which may be why they were covertly added), but presentvarious risks all on their own. For these reasons, we strongly recommendagainst using PC-SPES at all.

Other Natural Treatments

Literally hundreds ofherbs and supplements have been shown in test tube studies to fight cancercells. However, it is a long way from a test tube to a human body, and suchfindings are not at all meaningful.

In this subsection we discussseveral natural supplements that have received at least preliminary study inhumans. Keep in mind that none of the positive studies cited below reached thelevel of rigor required to truly show a treatment effective. (Most lacked a control group, for example.) In contrast, several properly designedstudies failed to find benefit.

A double-blind study of 53 people undergoing cancer treatment found equivocal evidence that treatment with a special form of Panax ginseng (modified to contain higher levels of certain constituents) could improve general well-being of people with cancer. 137 Another study investigating the effects of Panax ginseng on survival of patients being treated for lung cancer showed no additional benefit.161

One study provides indirect, but promising evidence that a mixture of the supplements coenzyme Q10 (100mg daily), riboflavin (10 mg daily) and niacin (50 mg daily) might help reduce the chance of breast cancer metastasis, or recurrence. 140

According to most but not all of the highly preliminary trials reported to date, extracts of the fungus Coriolus versicolor may enhance the effectiveness of various forms of standard cancer therapy. 96-101,106 Coriolus is thought to work by stimulating the immune system. The fungi products active hexose correlated compound (AHCC) and shiitake are also advocated for this purpose. 152,153

The supplement docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), aconstituent of fishoil , has shown promise for enhancing the effects of the cancerchemotherapy drug doxorubicin . 33

The herb ginkgo isthought to increase blood flow. An uncontrolled study evaluated combinationtherapy with ginkgo extract and the chemotherapy drug 5FU for the treatment of pancreatic cancer, on the theory that ginkgo might enhance bloodflow to the tumor and thereby help 5FU penetrate better. 35 The results were promising.

Scant preliminary evidence suggests that Americanginseng may increase effectiveness of treatment for breast cancer 36 and that so-called Siberianginseng (properly know as Eleutherococcussenticosus ) may be useful in the treatment of breast cancer 37 and other forms of cancer. 38

A small unblinded study using a no-treatmentcontrol group found indications that use of a standardized tomato extractcontaining the supplement lycopene might slow the growth of prostatecancer. 34 In a small double-blind, placebo-controlled study, a combination of soy , isoflavones , lycopene, silymarin (from milk thistle ), and antioxidants showed some potential benefit for preventing recurrence of prostate cancer after prostate cancer surgery. 126 Another enrolled men with rising PSA levels (a symptom of worsening cancer) and found that use of lycopene helped stabilize these levels. 157 Unfortunately, because this study failed to include a placebo control group, its results fail to indicate that lycopene lowers PSA levels and therefore, by inference, slows prostate cancer. However, researchers did compare lycopene alone against lycopene plus isoflavones, and, interestingly, the combined treatment seemed to be less effective, as if the isoflavones somehow antagonized the effects of lycopene.

Preliminary studies, including unblinded controlled trials, suggestthat the hormone melatonin may enhance the effectiveness ofstandard therapy for breast cancer, prostate cancer, brain glioblastomas,non-small-cell lung cancer, and other forms of cancer. 24-29 However, no double-blind studies have been reported. Melatonin may also help decrease cancerchemotherapy side effects (seebelow).30-32,107,127

Mistletoe extract taken by injection has been evaluated as a cancertreatment in a number of studies, including double-blind, placebo-controlledtrials. 39-46,108, 143,149,163,166 In general, though, these studies failed to attain adequate levels of scientific rigor or clinical relevance; the best studies found benefit; more rigorous studies found no improvement in survivaltime, survival rate, or quality of life.

Note: The safety of mistletoe is not established, and one reportsuggests that it can damage the liver. 47

An uncontrolled study found that use of a special spleen extract (spleen peptide preparation) somewhat reduced side effects of chemotherapy for head and neck cancer. 102

In a double-blind, placebo-controlledtrial, neither vitaminA nor N-acetylcysteine proved helpful for enhancing survival in headand neck cancer or lung cancer. 49

Vitamin D maydecrease bone pain and increase muscle strength in men with prostatecancer. 48

Acupuncture has shown a bit of promise for reducing the sense of fatigue that commonly occurs in cancer.159

One study tested whether a diet very high in vegetables, fruit, and fiber, and low in fat could enhance survival or reduce recurrence rates in women diagnosed with breast cancer; unfortunately, no benefits were seen. 150


Reducing SideEffects of Chemotherapy

Various herbs and supplementshave shown promise for reducing the side effects of chemotherapy.

Many chemotherapy drugs work by interfering with rapidly dividing cells.Unfortunately, cancer cells aren’t the only cells that divide rapidly. Theintestinal tract constantly rebuilds its lining, and chemotherapy may interferewith that process. The result: gastrointestinal side effects, such as mouthsores, nausea, loss of appetite, and diarrhea.

Several herbs andsupplements have shown promise for alleviating these conditions, although nonehave been definitively proven effective.

Diarrhea and Other Gastrointestinal Side Effects

A well-designed double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 70 participantsundergoing cancer chemotherapy with the drug 5-FU evaluated thepotential benefits of the supplement glutamine forreducing chemotherapy-induced diarrhea. 52 Theresults suggest that use of glutamine at a dose of 18 g daily mayreduce intestinal damage and diminish symptoms of diarrhea. These promisingfindings indicate a need for larger trials to accurately determine the extentof benefit.

A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of 150 peopleundergoing chemotherapy with 5-FU found some evidence that a probiotic (friendly bacteria) called Lactobacillus rhamnosus can reduce the diarrhea that is a common complication of this treatment. 156 Another, more unusual probiotic, a special, nonpathogenic form of E. coli , has also shown promise. 53

Highly preliminary evidence hints that the supplement active hexose correlated compound (AHCC) 151 and colostrum 59 have might help reduce chemotherapy-induced gastrointestinal side effects. 59

In one study, use of the supplement creatine failed to help maintain muscle mass in people undergoing chemotherapy for colon cancer. 128

Mouth Sores

In an uncontrolled study, useof the herb chamomile mouthwash appeared to help preventmouth sores in people undergoing various forms of chemotherapy. 54 However, uncontrolled studies prove nothing. Arigorous double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 164 people did not find chamomile mouthwash effective for treating the mouthsores caused by the chemotherapy drug 5-FU. 55

Beta-carotene and vitamin E have also shown some promise for preventing mouth sores (caused by variousforms of cancer treatment) in preliminary studies, but rigorous studies ofadequate size have not been reported. 56,57

Nausea

A very preliminary trial hints that ginger mayreduce nausea caused by the chemotherapy drug 8-MOP. 58 However, another study failed to find ginger helpful for nausea in people using the drug cisplatin . 109

Massage has shown some benefit for reducing nausea caused by chemotherapy. 142 Psychological methods such as hypnosis andrelaxation therapy have also shown promise for nausea. 60-69,155

One study found that use of aromatherapy massage (combined massage therapy and use of fragrant essential oils ) reduced symptoms of anxiety and/or depression in people undergoing treatment for cancer; however, the effects were short-lived. 141

Studies of acupressure or acupuncture for reducing nausea in people undergoing chemotherapy have reached contradictory results, though on balance, there may be some benefit.110-115,129,146,156,164

A double-blind study performed in Hong Kong evaluated the potential benefits in cancer chemotherapy of personalized herbal formulas designed according to the principles of Traditional Chinese Herbal Medicine . 139 In this study, 120 people undergoing chemotherapy for early-stage breast or colon cancer were given either a personalized formula or placebo. Researchers evaluated numerous possible effects of the treatment, but found benefits in only one: reduction of nausea. Note that even this single result is less meaningful than it may seem; it is statistically questionable to use a multiplicity of outcome measures.

Hot Flashes

A trial involving 72 breast cancer patients failed to find real acupuncture significantly more effective than sham acupuncture for treatment of hot flashes.160

Other Side Effects of Chemotherapy

In highly preliminary trials, the supplement N-acetylcysteine has shown promise for reducingvarious side effects of the drug ifosfamide. 70-74

An animal study suggests that aconstituent of fishoil called docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) might decrease side effectscaused by the drug irenotecan. 75

The hormone melatonin hasshown some promise for reducing the side effects of various chemotherapydrugs. 76,77,116

In preliminary studies, various antioxidants have shown promise for preventing heart damage and other side effects of the drug doxorubicin. See the Doxorubicin article for details.

One animal study hintsthat the herb milkthistle might protect against kidney damage caused by the drug cisplatin . 82 A highly preliminary human study hints that acetyl-L-carnitine might reduce peripheral neuropathy symptoms caused by cisplatin or paclitaxel. 130Sea buckthorn berry has been advocated for reducing side effects of chemotherapy, but the evidence that it works is far too preliminary to be relied upon at all.

This topic is also discussed in the Homeopathy Database , in the cancer chemotherapy support chapter.


Reducing SideEffects of Radiation Therapy

Although the symptoms aregenerally less intense than with chemotherapy, radiation therapy can also causeproblems, such as diarrhea, skin damage, and fatigue. Certain supplements mayoffer benefit.

Two double-blind, placebo-controlled studies enrolling a total of almost 700 people undergoing radiation therapy found that use of probiotics significantly improved diarrhea. 83, 145 However, of 85 women receiving pelvic radiation for cervical or uterine cancer, those who consumed a probiotic enriched yogurt had no less diarrhea than those who took a placebo drink.162

An unblinded controlled study of 75 people receiving radiation therapyfor various forms of cancer found some evidence that soap enriched with Aloevera gel can help protect the skin from radiationdamage. 84 However, researchers had to usequestionable statistical methods to find evidence of benefit, making theresults less than fully reliable. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study thatevaluated the effects of aloe gel in 225 women undergoing radiation therapy forbreast cancer failed to find benefit. 85 Another study failed to find aloe vera beneficial for reducing side effects of radiation therapy for head and neck cancer. 118

One study compared cream made from calendula flowers with the standard treatment trolamine for protecting the skin during radiation therapy and found calendula more effective. 119 However, it is not known whether trolamine is beneficial, neutral, or harmful when used for this purpose, and for this reason it's not possible to draw firm conclusions from the study.

Cream made from chamomile has also been tried for protecting the skin from damage caused by radiation therapy, but the one controlled trial on the subject failed to find benefit. 86

One study failed to find oligomeric proanthocyanidins (OPCs) from grape seed helpful for reducing the local side effects of radiation therapy for breast cancer. 131

Radiation treatment in the vicinity ofthe mouth may cause alterations in taste sensation. In a small double-blind,placebo controlled trial, use of zinc supplements tended to counter this symptom. 87 However, a larger follow-up study failed to find this benefit. 147

One small study did find found that use of zinc could modestly decrease inflammation of the mucous membranes and skin caused by radiation therapy. 138

Radiation treatment to the pelvic areacan cause nausea, vomiting, and fatigue. A double-blind, placebo-controlledtrial with 56 participants evaluated the potential effectiveness of proteolyticenzymes for reducing these symptoms. 88 Unfortunately, no benefits were seen. Another study failed to find proteolytic enzymes helpful for reducing mouth sores or other symptoms that occur during radiation therapy of head/neck cancers. 144

In a double-blind study of 40 people undergoing radiation therapy for breast cancer, use of a standard multivitamin preparation failed to reduce fatigue as compared to placebo. 154 (In fact, people in the placebo group may have done somewhat better than those given the vitamin.)

A large study failed to find aromatherapy more helpful than placebo for reducing psychological distress among people undergoing radiation therapy for cancer.120 And a small randomized trial found that effleurage massage, a common massage technique, had no significant effect on anxiety, depression, or quality of life among 22 women undergoing radiation therapy for breast cancer.165

As with chemotherapy, sea buckthorn berry has been advocated for reducing side effects of radiation therapy, but again reliable evidence is lacking.

The use of antioxidants during radiation therapy is controversial. One study found that use of antioxidants decreased radiation therapy side effects, but may have decreased radiation therapy effectiveness as well. 132

This topic is also discussed in the Homeopathy Database , in the radiation therapy support chapter.


Treating Lymphedema Caused byBreast Cancer Surgery

Many women experience lymphedema(chronic arm swelling caused by damage to the lymph drainage system) followingbreast cancer surgery. Natural treatments for this condition include oxerutins , citrusbioflavonoids , and OPCs . Formore information see the Surgery Support article.


HotFlashes After Mastectomy

Women who have had breast cancersurgery frequently experience annoying hot flashes. Estrogen treatment is notan option, as it might increase the risk of cancer recurrence.

Ina 2-month, double-blind trial, 85 women who had undergone treatment for breastcancer received either the herb black cohosh or placebo. 89 The results were notencouraging: black cohosh did not reduce overall hot-flash symptoms.

Four double-blind, placebo-controlled trials evaluated soy isoflavones as atreatment for hot flashes, but again failed to find benefit. 90,91,121,133

Treating Weight Loss Caused by Cancer or Cancer Treatment

Cancer can cause a condition called tumor-induced weight loss (TIWL), in which symptoms of starvation occur despite apparently adequate nutrition. The cause is thought to be a particular form of inflammation caused by the cancer. Cancer chemotherapy can also cause weight loss.For information on natural treatments that may be helpful, see the Undesired Weight Loss article.

Cancer Cures

Numerous herbs have been claimed effective for treatment of cancer, including:

However, there isno reliable evidence to indicate that they actually help, and one pokeroot , is actively toxic.

Variousherbal combinations have also been promoted for the treatment of cancer,including the Hoxsey cancer cure, Essiac, and Jason Winter's cancer-cure tea.Again, however, there is no reliable evidence that they really work.

Similarly, various dietary approaches claimed to help treat cancer, such as macrobiotics and raw foods, lack meaningful supporting evidence. 103


Herbs and Supplements to Use Only With Caution

Herb and Supplement Interactions With Specific Cancer Drugs

Various herbs and supplements may interact adversely with drugs used to treat cancer. We strongly recommend that individuals under treatment for cancer do not use any herb or supplement except under physician’s supervision. A few important categories of potential interactions are described here. Follow the links to the indicated article for detailed information.

The herb St. John’s wort interacts with many medications, including various chemotherapy drugs.

The drug methotrexate causes the body to become deficient in folate . For this reason, people who take methotrexate for rheumatoid arthritis , juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, or psoriasis are sometimes advised to take folate supplements. Studies indicate that in those conditions, use of folate does not impair the action of the drug. However, no studies have as yet established that folate supplements are safe to take with methotrexate when it is used to treat cancer.

The citrus bioflavonoid tangeretin may interact with the breast cancer drug tamoxifen .

One highly preliminary study found that black cohosh might interfere with the action of the chemotherapy drug cisplatin . 134

The Antioxidant Controversy

Heated disagreement exists regarding whether it is safe or appropriate to combine antioxidants (eg, vitamin E , vitamin C , and beta-carotene ) with standard chemotherapy drugs. The reasoning behind the concern is that some chemotherapy drugs may work in part by creating free radicals that destroy cancer cells, and antioxidants might interfere with this beneficial effect. 94

There is little reliable evidence, though, that antioxidants interfere with chemotherapy drugs. Additionally, there is growing evidence that antioxidants may not cause harm and, in certain cases, may offer benefits. 95,104,122,135 However, the effects are likely to vary with the specific situation (for example, type and stage of cancer, and kind of treatment used), and there is far more research to be done. 123 Therefore, we strongly recommend that you do not take antioxidants (or any other supplements) while undergoing cancer chemotherapy except on the advice of a physician.

A similar situation exists regarding radiation therapy. One study found that use of antioxidants decreased radiation therapy side effects, but may have decreased radiation therapy effectiveness as well.136 Another study found some evidence that people who both smoked cigarettes and used antioxidants while undergoing radiation therapy for head and neck cancer had increased risk of treatment failure as compared to smokers who did not use antioxidants.158

After reviewing much of the research on this controversial topic, one group of researchers published an article in the Journal of National Cancer Institute, in which they conclude that antioxidants should be discouraged during either chemotherapy or radiation therapy because of their potential to reduce the effectiveness of these treatments.167

Herbs That May Increase Breast Cancer Recurrence Risk

Women who havehad breast cancer are at high risk for a recurrence. As noted above, use ofestrogen promotes the development of breast cancer, and for this reason it isoff limits. However, certain natural products may present a similar risk.Numerous herbs and supplements have estrogen-like properties, including thefollowing:

Contrary to popularbelief, blackcohosh is probably not estrogenic.

Othersupplements, such as androstenedione and boron , mayraise estrogen levels in the body. Finally, although the herbs dong quai and Panaxginseng do not appear to act in an estrogen-like manner,they may nonetheless stimulate growth of breast cancer cells. 92 Women who have undergone breast cancer surgeryshould use these herbs and supplements only under the advice of a physician.

The weak estrogen, estriol , issometimes advocated by alternative practitioners as a safer choice thanstandard estrogen. However, test tube studies suggest that estriol is just aslikely to cause breast cancer as any other form of estrogen. 93